The Early History and Use
of the G Violone

Early Descriptions of the G Violone

   The early history, development, and performance practice of the viola da gamba family has been researched and chronicled in recent years by a large number of music historians and players, who have focused on organological aspects of the instrument itself, and on its specific repertoire and its place in society. It now appears to be well accepted that the Renaissance viol was imported to Italy and northern Europe from Spain, at the end of the 1400s. ² Like many other Renaissance instruments, the viol was constructed in a variety of sizes, so that a pure consort of viols might cover all the voices of a contrapuntal composition: soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. The composition of the early consort is clearly described in a number of historical treatises. An examination of these documents is presented below, from which, it will be argued, it is evident that a viol with a lower tuning than the present-day bass viol's d'aecGD tuning was in widespread use as a standard bass member of the viol consort.

   Twenty-six theoretical documents dated prior to 1650 describe tunings for viole da gamba. ³ A chronological compilation of the information contained within these treatises is provided in Table 1 (next page; full bibliographic citations are listed in the Appendix, page 65). Most of these sources describe an entire family of gambas, and label each instrument according to its function with in the consort (such as tenor or bassus), rather than by an individual name based on its specific size, as in modern practice. With limited exceptions, these documents describe six-string instruments that are tuned in fourths with a major third between the middle two strings. Because such a tuning results in a two-octave span between the highest and lowest strings, the pitch name of these two strings provides a convenient means of classifying each instrument. (If the instrument has fewer than six strings, a "nominal" tuning classification may generally be made based on the instrument's top string pitch.) For example, the modern-termed bass viol with the tuning d'aecGD may be classified as a D instrument. There are four distinct classes of bass instruments described in the twenty-six treatises: some with higher tunings in D or E, and others with lower tunings in G or A. However, these four classes probably only relate to two sizes of instruments: one corresponding to the instrument we know today as the bass viol (no matter whether tuned in D or E), and the other being the lower-pitched and larger-bodied instrument that we call violone (tuned in either G or A).

   This system of classification provides an effective means for analysis, unlike the use of historical terminology, which can be problematic. Although the treatises document a limited number of tunings for bass instruments, these are called a variety of names (summarized in Table 1). For example, in nine sources that describe the specific instrument tuned gdAFCG', there are six different names attributed to it: bassus (or basso or baxo), violone del basso, violone da gamba, prima viola - basso, klein bass viol de gamba, or bass geige. But the problem is even more complex. Not only are similarly tuned instruments referred to by different names, but also disparate instruments are sometimes labeled with identical names. Thus the simple name bassus (or basso or baxo or has) was applied not only to an instrument tuned as above, but also to the three other classes (d'aecGD, or e'bf#dAE, or aeBGDA'). One may readily conclude that there were not standard names by which these instruments were identified. Certainly, if theorists?whose goal was actually to define these instruments?were not in agreement, we should perhaps use caution in assigning a single historical name to each instrument, or in searching other kinds of literary sources for specific reference to these terms. The lack of consistency in the theoretical documents argues against the use of historical terminology, and it is for this reason that I propose, and will employ, the system of classification described above, which is based on tuning.

Table 1

   Documentation for a violone tuned in A or G appears in some of the earliest theoretical documents to describe tunings for a gamba consort, and continues to appear, with increasing frequency, through the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The earliest reference comes from a student of Alfonso della Viola, who jotted down a set of four fingering charts at the back of a bassus part book, dated c. 1520. This player implies that the Italians employed two systems of tuning a viol consort; and the first is labeled "alla bassa" in which an instrument tuned in A is the bass. ⁴ In Regola Rubertina (1542), Sylvestro Ganassi's Regola Quarta provides confirmation of this system. Ganassi's first three rules had concentrated on describing the tunings for a consort in which the D or E bass viol was utilized. But in the fourth rule, Ganassi concludes his discussion with the statement that "since most players play the viols a fourth higher than in our first rule, I would like to show you this method." ⁵ He illustrates that the pitch d' (which in the first rule was the top, open string), is actually usually fingered at the fifth fret on the top string. The bass viol in customary use according to Ganassi, then, is tuned a fourth lower (and therefore in A) than the previously discussed instruments, and as a result, players fingered the notes a fourth higher on those instruments, to obtain the pitches desired, than they would have on the smaller instruments.

   From an assessment of theoretical sources, it is clear that the G/A violone was widely known. There are eighteen references to consorts in which the large A- or G-tuned violone is cited as the bass instrument, in comparison to fifteen sources that describe a D- or E-tuned bass viol in that capacity. ⁶ Of those descriptions, seven fall into both categories, since they allow for the possibility of tuning one's consort in two different ways (as in the two treatises described above). These seven treatises were likely depicting two different systems that were in use, concurrently, by players at that time. ⁷ The first system corresponds to the use of a "high consort" of smaller instruments, consisting of the three sizes d-treble/g-tenor⁸/D-bass; this is the most usual practice among gamba consorts today. The second system illustrates a "low consort" of larger-bodied viols. This instrumentarium still calls the instruments by the names treble, tenor, and bass, but these names now correspond to different sizes of instruments: g-tuned tenor (called treble)/D-tuned bass (called tenor)/G (or A) violone (called bass).⁹ Note that the bass instrument of the high consort would have been the alto and/or tenor-sized instrument of the low consort.

   That both kinds of consorts were known and utilized is confirmed by nineteen theoretical descriptions, where only single systems are illustrated. By excluding the above-mentioned seven treatises from the figures, one finds eleven (of eighteen) unambiguous descriptions of a low consort, with the G/A violone as bass, and eight (of fifteen) unambiguous descriptions of a high consort, with a D or E bass viol. Further, by comparing the frequency of reference to like-tuned instruments, one may conclude that by the last quarter of the sixteenth century, the G tuning came to take precedence over the A tuning (for the larger bass), and the D tuning came to take precedence over the E tuning (for the smaller bass). Even more striking, by comparing bass instrument use during the last quarter of the sixteenth century through the first half of the seventeenth century (as described in fifteen sources), one finds eight references to the G violone, three references to an A-tuned violone, and four references to the bass viol in D. Based on the regularity of its description, one may easily conclude that by the first quarter of the seventeenth century, the low consort, with the G-tuned violone as its bass, appears to have become the most favored gamba consort tuning.

   Through a comparison of the treatises, it is equally simple to observe that the G violone's use was not limited geographically, but rather was known across the Continent. By assigning general provenance to each source (based on the place of publication, or the national trend it claims to portray), the number of times and ways the different tunings appear may be compared. Of fifteen Italian sources, ten describe D/E basses, while nine describe G/A violoni. (Again, as above, there is something of an overlap, since four of these allow for either the smaller or the bigger instrument.) Of the seven Germanic sources, four describe D/E basses, and six describe G/A violoni. The three French sources are less clear-cut, since the two sixteenth-century theorists describe an atypical (to other Continental systems) five-string, nominal G tuning,¹⁰ yet the third theorist unambiguously describes a D-tuned bass viol. The single Spanish author describes a G violone.

   Based on the above analysis, one may draw the following conclusions about national preference. In the case of the Italian community, there are a sizeable number of sources, which seem to indicate that both the bass viol and the violone were in common use, and equally well represented, until circa 1600 when the larger size took precedence over the smaller one. Although fewer in numbers, the Germanic sources also serve to illustrate the same perspective: both sizes were in use. In the case of the French, Spanish, and (non-existent) English sources, however, the numbers of sources are limited, so evidence is inadequate for drawing justifiable conclusions. One should only be aware that both sizes of bass viol were evidently well known and in use concurrently by Italian and German musicians. And since many Italians and Germans stocked the musical ensembles outside of their native homeland, there is good reason to speculate that their instrumental customs were put into practice in some of the other musical centers.

G Violone Function in the Low Consort

   It is important to remember that the theoretical discussions of string instruments present the gamba as a family, with an eye to advising how the viols in a consort are tuned in relation to each other. Regardless of which specific tuning was being prescribed for the bass member of the consort, the bass was always tuned a fourth or fifth below the alto/tenor instrument, and this in turn was tuned a fourth or fifth below the treble instrument. Each theorist described three sizes of viols. (It is perhaps surprising that not a single one suggested the addition of a G or A violone to a high consort, which would result in a consort of four sizes of viol.) Pietro Cerone's description in El melopeo y maestro (1613) is typical of many of the others. Cerone describes a consort of vihuelas de arco, labeled with the names tiple, tenor, and baxo. He provides a tuning chart illustrating that the lowest note on the bass is G'. He claims this instrument has a range of "19 notes," the highest being d' (which corresponds to the seventh fret, on the top g-string). Skeptics might choose to argue that with a low consort, the treble instrument would not have a high enough range to play most consort treble parts. By examining Cerone's tuning chart, this issue is laid to rest. His treble instrument (which corresponds in size to a modern g-tenor viol) is tuned in A, and utilizes the range above the top fret, extending a full "22 notes," up to a" (an octave above the open top string). This upper range, then, is in fact generally adequate for most consort music. Cerone's tenor viol, as one might expect, is pitched between these two other sizes, and tuned in D (corresponding to the bass viol as we know it), with an upper range to a' (the seventh fret).

   In all of the treatises that portray the G/A violone, this instrument is always illustrated as a usual and regular member of the viola da gamba consort. One observes that theorists describe a single technique, i.e. fingering and bowing principles and playing position, that is applicable for all sizes of viols: the bow is held underhand and a four-finger system of fingering is employed. ¹¹ Prior to 1664 there is no evidence for wound strings, so we must assume that these instruments were strung with six pure gut strings.¹² And in gamba consort practice, players are assigned individual parts, instead of doubling each other's lines. Detailed discussion of these practices is beyond the scope of this current article, but it is important to bear in mind that the G violone's technique and reading habits appear to have been the same as those of its smaller relatives. Certainly, if its habits were different, there is no mention of them whatsoever in any of the theoretical documentations.

   These points may seem self-evident to some readers, but they are called to your attention for several reasons. First, it is particularly important to place the G violone in the context of the gamba consort, in order to avoid the modern-day tendency to view it as a double bass and assign it a different set of performance practices.¹³ Among the few people to avail themselves of this instrument today, many characterize it as a "large ensemble" instrument, suitable for use almost exclusively "if the part goes especially low" or "if one wants to make a special impact" or "to reinforce the organ." But none of the early primary sources ever describe a G violone in this manner. Secondly, the function of the G violone may have undergone a radical change during the late seventeenth and first half of the eighteenth century: from that of a non-transposing instrument to one that sounded its part an octave lower than written pitch (in true double bass fashion). It is not my aim at this time to start a discussion of when this doubling instrument was appropriate, nor to chronicle the changes in practice the G violone saw in later periods.¹⁴ The point I wish to make is that based on all eighteen theoretical references to G/A violoni written prior to 1650, the instrument is treated very simply as the bass member of the gamba consort, and as such it surely behaved (technically and in application) in the same manner we accept for the D bass viol. Following on this, it is surely logical to assume that a good portion of the Renaissance and early Baroque repertoire for bass viola da gamba may in fact be legitimately, if not quite effectively, suited to the larger G violone, as an alternative to the smaller "bass viol" to which we are more accustomed.

Repertoire for the G Violone

Solo Music

   Turning now to the issue of repertoire, we begin with the premise that some Renaissance and early Baroque music is suitable for, if not specifically intended for, the G violone. In searching for this music there are several pitfalls to avoid, having to do with terminology. Much sixteenth- and early-seventeenth-century music is not idiomatic, in the sense that in many cases composers did not specify their ideal instrumentation, or they may have provided for the suitability of various instruments. And as was discussed above, the terms basso da viola [da gamba] and violone may in fact refer to any one of several differently timed instruments. So we must exercise caution when attempting to define which bass viola a composer had in mind, and not automatically leap to a conclusion that either the smaller or the larger size is more appropriate, based on its nominal designation. Instead, I propose that we begin with an examination of music that is chosen for its general, if not specific, suitability for a bass-range viol (whether as a solo instrument or in consort), and within that context proceed to isolate any materials in which the lower range descends below D, out of the D bass viol's range, thus requiring a lower-pitched instrument.

   Before assessing the music itself, it is worthwhile to consider the upper and lower extent of the violone's range (see Figure 1).

   Based on the theoretical treatises, we know that players may have tuned their instruments of this size in A or G, but by the beginning of the seventeenth century the evidence points towards a preference for the G tuning. As is typical for all viols, this instrument's basic range extends at least from low G' up to d', the pitch on the top string at the seventh fret. (This was described by Pietro Cerone, in the discussion above.) We might also assume that notes between that top fret and the octave above the top open string (g') are within its reasonable range, since other members of the gamba family are known to utilize that range regularly. (Again, see Cerone's treble instrument, described above.) For music to be considered idiomatic or suitable to the G violone it must fit comfortably within this range, and it must seemingly not pose undue challenges that might more logically be met on another size of gamba.

   Based on the above criteria, there is a sizeable body of known solo repertoire clearly suggesting, if not necessitating, the use of the G violone. This music comes from the Italian viola bastarda and division viol repertoires, dating from the first half of the seventeenth century, and includes pieces by Francesco Rognoni, Francesco Maria Bassani, Vicenzo Bonizzi, and Bartolomeo de Selma y Salaverde (see Appendix, page 66).¹⁵ Since theoretical treatises indicate that the G violone was well known and in use in Italian centers at precisely this time, and also given that this style of musical composition was specifically for a solo bass viol, necessitating a lower range extending to low G', the suitability of this repertoire for G violone should not be surprising.

   Francesco Rognoni published Selva de varii passaggi dificili (1620),¹⁶ in the tradition of many late-sixteenth-century instruction manuals, as an aid for players learning to improvise divisions. At the back of the book were included four viola bastarda settings of well-known tunes, the second of which is entitled "Susana d'Orlando: Modo di passegiar per il Violone . . . alla Bastarda." The range of this setting of Lasso's well-known chanson "Susanne ung jour" descends to low B-flat' and C on five occasions. But this lower range in and of itself is not complete confirmation of the piece's suitability for G violone. For this, we must look to the overall tessitura of the music. The bulk of the piece lies comfortably between the notes C and d'?a range that fits very comfortably on the G violone, with minimal need for shifting or for playing above the frets (see Example 1, next page). The highest note in the piece is f', a pitch that is within the upper range of this instrument. Furthermore, the central tonality of the composition is D minor. Cadential figures occur on many of the open-string pitches, including the notes g, d, A and C, or their octaves. Thus, many of the "important" pitch centers in the piece have a natural resonance that is facilitated by the tuning of the instrument. Taken as a whole, because of the lower pitches required, the upper range that fits comfortably, and an overall sonority that is favorable, it may be argued that this piece effectively exploits the idiomatic character of the G violone.

Example 1:

   Much more challenging technically, but illustrating many of the same kinds of idiomatic features as Rognoni's setting, is the collection of nine pieces published by Vicenzo Bonizzi in 1626, under the title Alcune opere di diversi auttori. . .¹⁷ The title page specifies "per la Viola Bastarda," and each of the pieces requires the use of the range below low D (four go down to low G', three descend to low A', one descends to B-flat' and one to C). For the virtuosity they require of the player, Bonizzi's settings of well-known madrigals and chansons might be considered the height of the bastarda repertoire. The range of each piece is huge, extending not only down to the very lowest register of a bass instrument, but also very high, sometimes encompassing as much as three octaves plus a major sixth (to e"). This range is farther highlighted by Bonizzi, who appears to delight in switching octaves at the seemingly slightest whim, and who calls attention to the great span by descending through that range, sometimes dramatically, by playing as many as four of the same note, each in a different octave! (See Example 2.) Bonizzi's passagework is extensive, but much lies comfortably on the G violone between the open fourth string (F) and the seventh fret on the top string (d'). In many instances, open-string sonorities are used as cadential, resting, or "pivot" points, where an elaborate run pauses momentarily before regrouping or changing direction. As in most viola bastarda music the lines are extremely florid, even relentless, in their continuity, so as to call attention to the player's virtuosity. To my mind, Bonizzi clearly utilizes the resonance of a G instrument to excellent effect.

Example 2:

   In addition to the music based on pre-existing models, some solo pieces composed in a free or fantasia style require the low range of the G violone. Francesco Maria Bassani's notebook of counterpoint exercises Lezioni di contrapunto ¹⁸ includes eight pieces "per viola bastarda", three are attributed to Orazio Bassani (his uncle), and one to Vicenzo Bonizzi. Two of these compositions are toccatas?elaborate divisions on a bass line? and the "Tocata per b quadro" (of unknown authorship) illustrates a clear three-octave range, from A' to a'. Large shifts in this piece are always facilitated by the use of an open string. For example, in the fifth measure the two-octave leap from A to a' is feasible largely because the bottom note is an open string, allowing the player time to shift without jeopardizing the instrument's resonance (see Example 3, next page). Bassani's use of the note A' as the lower extent might imply that he was writing specifically with an A violone in mind. (In that case, the two-octave leap would still have utilized an open string, since the top note a' would then lie as the octave harmonic above the top open string.) But his inclusion of music by Bonizzi (who used the low G' in his music), suggests that Bassani was just as likely familiar with the G violone tuning.

Example 3:

   Examined as a group, this body of solo repertoire has important implications for how we might view the G violone. But first, how do we conclude that this music was intended to be played at pitch, instead of being transposed up a fifth and played on a D bass viol? After all, this seems to be the manner in which twentieth-century players approach these pieces, if they acknowledge them at all. My response is that the original model (madrigal or chanson, or newly composed bass line) seems to be fairly firm; composers intentionally did not vary the modality/ tonality of the original composition. In this way, the original counterpoint functioned as an accompaniment for the embellishments, without any transposition. This logic is borne out in Bonizzi's publication, where a new basso seguente part is provided as accompaniment to the solo line, so that it may be performed with a harmony-realizing instrument if desired, instead of all the individual parts. Yet Bonizzi was strict in keeping to the tonality of the original model, so transposing his pieces up a fifth would not make sense. Concluding that this repertoire was intended to sound at its written pitch, it remains to reiterate that the G violone was the only gamba capable of the lower range necessary for its performance. The repertoire is virtuosic in style, necessitating the use of the extended upper range of the instrument, but most falls comfortably within the general range of standard viol technique.¹⁹ The repertoire discussed above is highly virtuosic and exploits the fill I range of the instrument, from the lowest notes on the bottom string to the highest notes up at the end of the fingerboard. The music reflects the cutting edge of compositional techniques of the time, namely the art of improvising, rendering divisions on a pre-existing model, or the free, fantasia style common to solo canzoni of the early seventeenth century. G violone players evidently had great agility and command of their instruments, the physical size of their viols not being considered a hindrance. It is hoped that this will provide incentive for modern scholars to reconsider some of the other "basso solo" music of the same period. Even when notes below low D are not required, there is now reason to justify exploration of this music by players on instruments other than the D bass viol.

Ensemble Music

   Turning to the issue of consort music, it is again logical to begin with repertoire that seems to require the use of an instrument larger than the bass viol, by virtue of the lower range required. Although not nearly as virtuosic or dramatic as the solo repertoire, examples of consort music in which the bass line descends below D do occur in a wide selection of the standard Continental and English music. For example, in Monteverdi's madrigal "Con che soavita," the lowest choir is comprised of three "viole da braccio overo da gamba" and the bottom line stays very low through most of the exposed writing, with low C's and C#'s and D's.²⁰ Low C's are also common in bass lines of much of the German consort repertoire of the early seventeenth century, including the Banchetto Musicale suites of Johann Hermann Schein and ensemble canzoni by Samuel Scheldt. And most players of the D bass viol will have experienced a few opportunities during consort sessions of English Jacobean music when they were required to tune their bottom string down to C, for example in music of William Lawes, John Ward, or Alfonso Ferrabosco II to name a few.

   Generally, the lowest extent of consort bass parts is low C. (The only consort pieces I know of that go lower than this are Gibbons's fantasias, which will be discussed below.) For this reason, it is sometimes difficult to prove definitively which size is more appropriate: a G- or D-tuned bass. After all, English consort music specialists provide justification for the distortion of their D-tuned instruments by citing evidence that some contemporaneous lyra-viol composers were in the habit of tuning the bottom string down to C while using standard tuning for the rest of the strings. Certainly, I don't rule this out as a possibility. But the ability to play low C is not the only reason to consider the use of a G or A violone. Bearing in mind that viol strings at this time were made of pure gut, the longer the vibrating length of a bass string of low frequency the better it would speak and project. Thus the larger the instrument's body size, the better the low string would respond and provide support. So on any consort parts that would lie very low on a D bass viol, it might be prudent to consider the possibility of using a violone. The resulting resonance may in fact be noticeably enhanced.

   The range and upper register of a G violone also would likely have been adequate for rendering most consort bass lines. It is generally accepted that viols sound better on their upper strings. Lower courses are thicker and muddier-sounding, lacking both the sweetness of tone and the crisp attack possible on thinner strings.²¹ Ideally then, in order to sound its best, each line should be played on an instrument where the moving notes are in the clearest range, and where the highest notes of the line do not typically exceed the natural range or "comfort zone" imposed by the top fret. A brief survey reveals that a great number of consort bass lines fit very comfortably on the G violone, since they do not exceed high d'. As a random selection, Volume 9 of Musica Britannica, Jacobean Consort Music, provides illustration of this fact.²² Browsing through the collection, one observes very quickly that the bass lines of much of the three-, four-, and five-part consort music stay below d', notes above are rather infrequent, and f#' seems to be the general upper limit. Assuming these parts to be played on a G violone, most of the writing will lie on the top three or four strings, and therefore within the best-sounding range of the instrument. On a D bass viol the music lies at least one string, and in some cases two strings, lower (for example, the note A is the open third string on the G violone, while it is a fingered note on the fifth string on the bass viol). In consort music, the use of a violone on the bass line is not justifiably disclaimed by virtue of its register?either higher or lower.

The Great Bass Viol and Its Music

   In general, modern practitioners have largely ignored the possibilities of using the G/A violone in English consort repertoire. Since no English writers documented descriptions of gamba consort tunings (as the Continental theorists did) prior to Christopher Simpson, Thomas Mace, and James Talbot in the second half of the seventeenth century,²³ there actually is no precise record of consort practice or tuning at the time when English composers were at their best and most active for this type of ensemble. Twentieth-century players and scholars have tended to use Simpson's descriptions in particular, and apply them retroactively, making the assumption that because the G or A violone was not mentioned as a consort instrument in the second half of the century, it also likely was not in use at the beginning of the 1600s. But there is a small pile of evidence to contradict that point of view.

   Peter Holman has shown that there were at least two great bass vyalls [sic] in use at the English court, since Jerome Lanier and Alfonso Ferrabosco II were each paid £20 for providing them, in 1624 and 1626 respectively.²⁴ As mentioned above, there are no written sources that directly confirm tuning or prove that a regular bass viol in England at that time was tuned in D. But we might logically infer that a great bass viol was larger in size than another instrument that was referred to as a bass viol. And since Continental sources cite D/E and G/A instruments as bass viols, it makes sense to think that these English terms probably relate to the sizes we have been discussing.

   The only English consort repertoire to specie preference for other than a normal bass is Orlando Gibbons's fantasias "for the great Dooble Base." These are scored for three and four players, with the "dooble base" part notated at pitch, extending down to low A', and clearly being contrasted to the (regular) bass, with a different part, playing above it. Unfortunately, there is no way of confirming if this was the same instrument as the "great bass" viol, nor of determining Gibbons's exact tuning for the "dooble base," even though his use of low A might imply an instrument with that as its lower extent. On the other hand, it is surely plausible that the many Italian and Flemish viol players who stocked the English noble and court consorts in the late 1500s and early 1600s were familiar with European traditions, instrument sizes, and tunings. Based on Gibbons's writing for a large bass gamba that extended (at least) to low A', in conjunction with the many other consort parts of the time that definitely utilize low C, it does seem that there would have been a regular use for the large bass gamba.

   That the great bass viol was more to English musicians than just a passing curiosity seems likely. In a painting by Peter Lely dated 1640,²⁵ a large bass viol is shown accompanying the transverse flute (see Plate 1). Leiy's adult male violonist is seated; his violin-shaped, fretted instrument is played underhand, and is too big to rest on the calves. The other figures in the painting are in correct proportion to the violonist: two children (one plays the flute, the other a keyboard) are behind him, and four female courtesans in various states of attire are clustered alluringly around the scene, one of them patting a dog. The violonist is the focal point of the painting; his eyes are raised heavenward, as if in communication with his muse. The painting is a realistic enough portrait; both the people and objects depicted are convincingly lifelike. So there is no reason to believe that Lely made a mistake depicting the size of the instrument, which is clearly larger than a standard bass viol. His player is shown playing in a seated position, and not utilizing an endpin. The player's bow grip and left hand position resemble those considered standard for the smaller viol family members. Finally, Lely's painting portrays this presumed "great bass viol" in a private chamber music setting, in which it is the only bowed bass. This suggests that the great bass viol may also have been used in chamber music in addition to being part of the gamba consort.

Extant Instruments

Instruments and Size

   A final step in proving the existence and features of the G violone comes from assessing extant viols that are reliably dated to the period in question. As the definitive guide to extant viole da gamba, I consulted the Viol List²⁶ with an eye to examining and comparing instruments that were deemed larger than D bass viols. Although there is no such thing as "standard" bass viol size (string lengths in modern use vary as much as from 64 cm. to 76 cm.), I started my search with what seemed reasonable: instruments that were larger than 78 cm. string length.²⁷ Because the List did not give a string length for every instrument, and also because string length is an imprecise measurement (it can so easily be varied according to personal taste, bridge location, or neck length), I chose instead to sort the instruments according to their body length, in centimeters. The body length of each instrument proves to be an excellent means of comparison, because it relates roughly to what would be an "ideal" string length for the instrument, but without the personal variation of individual setups. (This will be further discussed below.) A final point is that for inclusion in this comparison the instrument in question was required to have five or six strings, this being the most basic characteristic feature of the viola da gamba family and one that would potentially distinguish it from other "double basses" of the violin family, which would likely only have three or four.

   The results of this compilation were quite substantial: there are twenty-three known extant instruments (see Table 2), with body sizes ranging from 81.0 cm. to 122.0 cm. Only six of those instruments have body lengths of more than 100.0 cm., and fourteen are clustered in an apparently related group, illustrating body lengths from 86.3 to 97.0 cm. (Note that this 10.7 cm. difference among the violoni is less, even, than the 12.0 cm. string length difference on modern-day bass viols mentioned above!) Six of the instruments that fall within this "average" group of fourteen were made by a single maker (Ernst Busch of Nuremberg), yet these have varying sizes, ranging from 86.3 to 91.3 cm. Interestingly, many of the instruments outside the average measure of this central group are the ones that appear to have used five strings instead of six. As with other sizes of viols, the individual construction of the extant violoni reflects all different kinds of shapes, scrolls, and decoration, even though the majority have f holes. Since most of these particular attributes are so clearly not standardized, it may be assumed that they were of little importance to the function of the instrument.

Table 2:

String Length

   Approaching the question of "standard" size for the G/A violone from a different direction, I recently spoke with several string makers to try to determine if, by modem standards, a certain string length might be considered most reasonable or functional to obtain the pitches desired.²⁸ Of course, it would be unreasonable to assume that players historically set up their instruments under standard, optimal, and/or similar conditions, so this question can only be answered speculatively. Nonetheless, there is a distinct correlation between the size of the extant instruments and their string lengths, as proposed for G and A violone tunings.

   Since they cannot be ascertained for the known extant instruments, we must leave aside the substantial issues of personal setup and pitch standard (which varied as much as from A=392 to A=465 or more over the course of several centuries, and in varying musical centers)²⁹ But by using average modern standards (regardless of their historical accuracy) where A=415 or A=440, a set of string lengths acceptable for the G violone may be determined. Low-pitched strings, because they can be made in such a wide variety of gauges, are not problematic for instruments the size of those extant. Instead, it is largely the pitch of the top string that is inflexible, for if the string is too thin it will sound "reedy," or if the tension is too high it will break. (That is why Ganassi and several other Renaissance theorists advised tuning the top string of the bass viol first, to as high a pitch as it would stand without breaking, and then tuning the other strings and the rest of the gamba consort to that.³⁰ In modem practice, string makers use a "tension-to-length ratio" to monitor and balance the tension exerted by each string on the bridge and table of the instrument. Under average modern standards, 11.5 kg. of tension may be balanced, with an "acceptable-sounding" top string for a G tuning, at string lengths of 85.0 to 95.0 cm. An A violone tuning would favor a slightly shorter string length.

   String instrument builders have differing opinions about how to determine precise string lengths. Some claim that the string length should be just slightly more than the body length, and others claim it should be just slightly less.³¹ Measurements provided for some of the extant instruments reflect this imprecision, and of course, each individual player's personal choice of exact bridge and nut location would only have served to confound the situation. By splitting the difference, and assuming that string length is almost equally proportional to body length, there is a very close correlation between what modern string makers propose as feasible string lengths for the pitches of the G violone tuning and the "average" body lengths of the extant instruments. We may conclude that since the extant instruments of approximately 86 to 97 cm. body length were potentially able to accommodate tunings for G or A violone, they were likely intended by their makers to have been used in that capacity.

Conclusions and Notes Concerning Terminology

   That an instrument larger than the modem-termed bass viol was a regular member of the gamba family and consort, in common use during the sixteenth and early seventeenth century, is now hopefully beyond doubt. I have argued that such an instrument was widely known on the Continent and in England, and that it was used as a solo, chamber, and consort instrument. Its repertoire includes a substantial oeuvre of solo and consort music requiring its use (by virtue of the low range), but also likely includes portions of repertoires that we generally attribute to the smaller bass viol. Although in theoretical documents the instrument under consideration is most often referred to as the bass viola da gamba, it is more practical for us to assign it the modern name of G violone (or A violone when an A tuning is specifically prescribed or utilized) so as not to confuse it with the smaller instrument known today by the name bass viol. The name great bass viol is likely appropriate specifically for English repertoire. Each seems specific enough to call to mind this particular size of viola da gamba through direct reference to its tuning, which ultimately serves as a more practical means of classification than the use of historical terminology. But no matter how it is called, it is my hope that players and historians alike will make an effort to become familiar with this no-longer-forgottea instrument, and bring it back into regular discussion and appropriate use.

Footnotes:

¹ Tuning pitches are given here from the highest string to the lowest.

² See Ian Woodfield, The Early History of the Viol (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).

³ To the best of my knowledge, these are all of the known treatises that describe viol timings prior to 1650. Most of these documents have been examined in detail by musicologists, and their contents are fairly readily available, many in facsimile, and some in translation. Many are discussed in detail in Woodfield, Early History.

⁴ Described in Woodfield, Early History, 240.

⁵ "E perche il piu di sonatori si sona le viole una Quarta piu alta de la prima regola nostra: pero voglio insegnarti il ditto modo." Described in Woodfield, Early History, 144-145.

⁶ In the seventeen treatises that list the A or G violone as the bass, the D- or E-tuned bass viol is almost invariably presented as the tenor member of the consort. Thus, almost all of the treatises do describe D- or E-tuned bass viols. I wish to emphasize that the figures cited above are only representing the number of times the instruments are mentioned as the bass member of the consort.

⁷ Some authors have put forth the persuasive argument that a second tuning, rather than being a physical description of how the instrument is oriented, is actually a mental tool the player can use as an aid for transposition. In early-sixteenth-century practice, viol consorts adapted many musical models to their own needs by transposing them, so that they lay in a comfortable range on their instruments. Instead of writing out the music at a lower pitch, players developed systems of refingering the same pitches, in a relative sense, by thinking of them as if they were playing on different (i.e. larger) instruments, which thereby transposed the music downwards by the interval of a fourth or fifth. Of course, this principle makes good sense, particularly for a period in musical history when instrumental music was not yet idiomatically conceived. For more information, see Woodfield, Early History, 109-10; Howard Mayer Brown, "Notes (and Transposing Notes) on the Viol in the Early Sixteenth Century" in Iain Fenlon, ed., Music in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Kathleen Moretto Spencer and Howard Mayer Brown, "How Alfonso della Viola Tuned His Viols, and How He Transposed," Early Music 14 (1986).

⁸ As with the bass viols, each "size" may actually have been tuned in a variety of ways. Based on different theorists' accounts, the "g-tenor" may have been tuned in G, or pitched an entire tone higher in A, or a whole tone lower in F.

⁹ Modern conventions in the United States, Great Britain and much of Europe commonly dictate a consort in which the D bass viol is used as the bass instrument. Some German consorts, however, have adopted the practice of utilizing the larger A or G violone. They consequently label the instruments of their consort by the name of the part each instrument plays, as one would with a low consort. For the sake of clarity, and in order to facilitate this discussion, I prefer to assign the modern name of A or G violone, so that the term "bass viol" retains its usual meaning to most readers.

¹⁰ As Woodfield, Early History, 200-201.

¹¹ Documented by Hans Gerle, Musica Teusch (Nuremberg, 1532); Silvestro di Ganassi, Regola Rubertina (Venice, 1542); and Philibert Jambe de Fer, Epitome Musicale (Lyons, 1556). Discussion of these is provided in Woodfield, Early History.

¹² The earliest reference to wound strings occurs in the form of a printed advertisement located at the back of John Playford, A Breef Introduction to the Skill ofMusick, 2nd ed. (London, 1664).

¹³ For example, there is no evidence to support the point of view that the large bass might have been a transposing instrument, playing its part an octave below the notated pitch. Should one make that claim, one might also have to assume that the treble and tenor viols transposed their parts down an octave! Many historians have made the assumption that if it is a "big" bass, it must be a "double bass." For example, see Alfred Planyavsky, The Baroque Double Bass Violone, trans. James Barket (Lanham, Md.: The Scarecrow Press, 1997), and Paul Brun, A History of the Double Bass, trans. Lynn Morrel (Paris: published by the author, 1989).

¹⁴ It is common belief among modern players that an even larger/lower gamba, tuned a full octave below the D bass viol, hereafter called the "D violone" (daECG'D'), was in common use during the period currently under discussion. In actual fact, there are only two references to such an instrument prior to 1737: these are by Adriano Banchieri, Conclusioni nel suono dell'organo (Bologna, 1609), and Michael Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum, Vol. 2: De Organographia (Wolfenbuttel, 1619). In both cases, each author deliberately excluded the D violone from his discussion of the tuning of the gamba consort. It is only in reference to this particular instrument that Praetorius discusses the issue of octave transposition.

¹⁵ For detailed discussion and transcriptions of most of this repertoire, see Jason Paras, The Music for Viola Bastarda (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986).

¹⁶ Francesco Rognoni Taeggio, Selva de varii passaggi . . . and Parte seconda (Milan: Filippo Lomazzo, 1620). Available in facsimile edition by Bibliotheca Musica Bononiensis, 1983, and in modern edition by Bernard Thomas, London Pro Musica Editions, REP 15. Also see Jason Paras, Music for Viola Bastarda.

¹⁷ Vicenzo Bonizzi, Alcune opere di diversi auttori (Venice: Allessandro Vincenti, 1626). Available in facsimile edition by Archivium Musicum: Strumentalismo Italiano, 1983, and in modern edition by Bernard Thomas, London Pro Musica Editions, REP 18 and 19. Also see Jason Paras, Music for Viola Bastarda.

¹⁸ I - Florence, Biblioteca nazionale centrale, Cod. misc. 89. Lezioni di contrapunto fatte da Francesco Maria Bassani, con alcune toccate e vari madrigali rotti (ossia passeggiati) da Orazio Bassani suo zio anno 1621. Information and transcriptions are available in Jason Paras, Music for Viola Bastarda.

¹⁹ Having performed much of this repertoire on G violone myself, I can attest to its "playability." Certainly, it is no more difficult on the G violone than it would be in a transposed form on the bass viol.

²⁰ Claudio Monteverdi, Libro 7 (Venice, 1619).

²¹ See Michael Morrow, "Sixteenth Century Ensemble Viol Music" Early Music 2 (1974), and Woodfield, Early History, 109-10.

²² Thurston Dart and William Coates, eds., Jacobean Consort Music, Musica Britannica, vol. 9 (London: Stainer and Bell, 1962).

²³ Christopher Simpson, The Division Viol (London, 1665); Thomas Mace, Musick's Monument (London, 1676); and James Talbot, "The Talbot Manuscript," Oxford, Christ Church Library Ms. 1187, c. 1694.

²⁴ Peter Holman, Four and Twenty Fiddlers: The Violin at the English Court 1540-1690 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 216-17.

²⁵ Located at the Courtauld Institute Galleries, London; reproduced here with their permission.

²⁶ Peter Tourin and Thomas G. MacCracken, Viol List: A Comprehensive Catalogue of Historical Viole da Gamba (Duxbury, Vt, 1979, and Oakton, Va., 1998). I am grateful to Tom MacCracken who provided me with an updated copy of the list, presorted to my specifications.

²⁷ I am grateiul to Tom MacCracken and luthiers John Pringle and Edward Maday for helping to confirm the parameters and measurements under which modern bass viols are generally classified.

²⁸ I am particularly grateful to Daniel Larson of Gamut Musical Strings in Minnesota for providing me with much of this information.

²⁹ See Herbert Myers, "Pitch and Transposition," in A Performer's Guide to Seventeenth-Century Music (New York: Schirmer Books, 1997) 325-40.

³⁰ Sylveslro di Ganassi, Regola Rubertina (Venice, 1542). Also see Woodfield. Early History, 150-51.

³¹ Two instruments in my possession illustrate that both systems can be made to work. My copy of the Dolmetsch Maggini has a body length of 96.5 cm. and a string length of 92.5 cm. Conversely, my Edlinger has a body length of 99.5 cm. and a string length of 102.0 cm. Both instruments accommodate seven frets easily enough, and both "sound" well. I cannot claim to have an opinion on which system is better?they both work.

Appendix: Bibliography of Primary Sources Cited

Treatises (listed in chronological order):

I-Venice: Biblioteca Marciana ms.Lat.336, coll. 1581, c. 1515.
I-Florence: Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Ms Magl. xix 164-7, c. 1520.
D - Munich: University Library, 4^o Cod. ms. 718, 1523.
Agricola, Martin. Musica instrumentalis deudsch. Wittenberg, 1529 and 1529.
Gerle, Hans. Musica Teusch. Nuremberg, 1532.
Lanfranco, Giovanni Maria. Scintille di musica. Brescia, 1533.
US - New Haven: Yale University Music Library, Misc.Ms.243, c. 1536.
Ganassi, Silvestro di. Regola Rubertina. Venice, 1542.
Agricola, Martin. Musica instrumentalis deudsch, revised edition. Wittenberg, 1545.
Ortiz, Diego. Trattado de glosas. Rome, 1553.
Jambe de Fer, Philibert. Epitome Musicale. Lyons, 1556.
Troiano, Massimo. Discorsi delli Triomphi. Munich, 1568.
Marinati, Aurelio. Somma di tutte le scienze. Rome, 1587.
Mareschall, Samuel. Porta musices. Basle, 1589.
Zacconi, Lodovico. Prattica di musica. Venice, 1592.
I - Bologna: Civico Museo Bibliografico Musicale. Virgiliano, Aurelio. Il Dolcimelo. c. 1600.
Cerreto, Scipione. Della prattica musica. Naples, 1601.
Prandi, Giovanni Francesco. Compendio della musica. 1606.
Banchieri, Adriano. Conclusioni nel suono dell'organo. Bologna,1609.
Banchieri, Adriano. L'organo suonarino, 2nd edition. Bologna, 1611.
Cerone, Pedro. El melopeo y maestro. Naples, 1613.
Praetorius, Michael. Syntagma Musicum, Vol. 2: De Organographia. Wolfenbuttel 1619.
Mersenne, Marin. Harmonie Universelle. Paris, 1636.
Hizler, Daniel. Newe musica. Tubingen, 1628.
Doni, Giovanni Battista. Annotazioni sopra il compendio. Rome, 1640.
Kircher, Anthanasius. Musurgia universalis. Rome, 1650.

Solo Repertoire for G Violone:

Rognoni Taeggio, Francesco. Selva de varii passaggi . . . and Parte seconda. Milan: Filippo Lomazzo, 1620. Contains one piece suitable for G/A violone: "Susana d'Orlando: Modo di passegiar per il Violone Over Trombone alla Bastarda."

I - Florence, Biblioteca nazionale centrale. Cod. misc. 89, Lezioni di contapunto fatte da Francesco Maria Bassani, con alcune toccate e vari madrigali rotti (ossia passeggiati) da Orazio Bassani suo zio anno 1621. Contains three pieces suitable for G/A violone: "Tocata per b quadro del [?]," "Signor mio caro," and "La bella è [sic] netta ignud'e bianca mano: Rotto da Vicenzo Bonizzi."

Bonizzi, Vicenzo. Alcune opere di diversi autfori. Venice: Allessandro Vincenti, 1626. Contains nine pieces suitable for G violone: "Doice memoy," "Invidioso Amor," "Iouisanze," D'Amor me playns," "En vox adieux," "En vox adieux. Altro modo," "Pijs me peult venir," "La bella netta ignuda," and "Hellas comment."

Selma y Salaverde, Bartolomeo de. Primo Libro, Canzoni, Fan-tasie. Venice: Bartolomeo Magni, 1638. Contains six pieces suitable for G/A violone: three "Fantasias per bass solo," "Vestiva hi colli pasegiato per basso solo," "Susana pasegiato per basso solo," and "Canzon a 2 per basso e soprano."

Reprinted from the The Journal of the Viola da Gamba Society of America
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